lunes, 20 de abril de 2009
A shift in Britain's leadership.
In April 1940 Hitler invaded Denmark and Norway. The latter would provide him naval bases so, he had been really determined to get it. What is more, he was confident that he would not be stopped by the British navy this time, as had happened in WWI. Eventually, the British did attempt to help Norway but this was a failure. Consequently, Prime Minister Chamberlain resigned and was replaced by Winston Churchill, who had already been First Lord of the Admiralty during WWI.
The British expeditionary Force in France
After the Germans bypassed "The Maginot Line" in on the Franco-German border, it only took them a month to leave the Allies surrounded and facing total defeat. These withdrew to Dunkirk. Nevertheless, in Dunkirk the advancing German army trapped them. Suddenly, something unexpected occurred, Hitler ordered his army to stop. This decision was extremely harmful to Germany since it gave the British Expeditionary Force the chance to evacuate the place, saving a large part of its army. This is clearly an example of how the British tactics and the German's failures led to the success of the Allies.
In addition, the Royal Air Force was able to outfight the Luftwaffe over Dunkirk.
In spite of all this, it is a fact that these events were not a complete success for the Allies because the BEF was driven out of Europe, many troops became prisoners, the French were left to fight alone and most of the British equipment had been left behind, destroyed or in German hands.
In addition, the Royal Air Force was able to outfight the Luftwaffe over Dunkirk.
In spite of all this, it is a fact that these events were not a complete success for the Allies because the BEF was driven out of Europe, many troops became prisoners, the French were left to fight alone and most of the British equipment had been left behind, destroyed or in German hands.
The Battle of Britain
This battle began when the first German aircraft crossed the English Channel. Blitzkrieg tactics could not work across the Channel so, Hitler was determined to carry out a sea and air invasion to conquer Britain. Besides, this invasion could not be possible if the Germans were attacked by the RAF and the British navy. Therefore, Hitler needed to wipe out the RAF in order to leave the British ships vulnerable to air attack. This plan of bombing air bases to weaken the RAF was put into practice on 1 July 1940, which led to the start of the air war.
The head of the Luftwaffe, Hermann Goering was totally confident as he had more well trained and experienced pilots and more high-quality aircraft than the British, for example, the Messerschmitt 109 fighter, the Heinkel III fighter, the Junkers Ju 88 bomber and the Dornier D.17 bomber.
Still, they had some weaknesses: Goering was not good at tactics and did not understand quite well modern air warfare apart from habitually changing the focus of attacks, creating confusion among pilots. In addition, the German fighting aircraft was not the right type since it was not geared towards gaining air superiority. As regards the fighters, they had very little fuel so they could only fly over England for 30 minutes. Germans bombers were too small so they could not cause enough damage to put the enemies out of action. Plans to build big long-range heavy bombers were cancelled and they would have been capable of devastating airfields and aircraft factories, which would have helped Germany to defeat Britain.
On the other hand, the RAF had its strengths. It was led by Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding who had been planning Britain's air defence system since 1936 and had instead introduced important technical developments as the bullet-proof windscreens for fighter planes, and command and communication systems which allowed fighters to meet quickly and deal effectively with enemy attacks. He was also a supporter of radar which helped RAF planes to avoid being caught on the ground while the Luftwaffe approached. Moreover, the fighter planes -Spitfires and Hurricanes- were better than the Germans'. RAF fighters were able to meet attacks quickly since they were organised into regions.
The British outshoot the Luftwaffe but it still needed more planes so aircraft production was focused on producing only fighter planes.
In September 1940 the Luftwaffe changed tactics and it began to bomb London. This tactic was called 'The Blitz' and it lasted eight months. It is said that by then this Battle had come to an end since Hitler had abandoned his aim to destroy the RAF and had therefore abandoned his plans for invasion too.
The head of the Luftwaffe, Hermann Goering was totally confident as he had more well trained and experienced pilots and more high-quality aircraft than the British, for example, the Messerschmitt 109 fighter, the Heinkel III fighter, the Junkers Ju 88 bomber and the Dornier D.17 bomber.
Still, they had some weaknesses: Goering was not good at tactics and did not understand quite well modern air warfare apart from habitually changing the focus of attacks, creating confusion among pilots. In addition, the German fighting aircraft was not the right type since it was not geared towards gaining air superiority. As regards the fighters, they had very little fuel so they could only fly over England for 30 minutes. Germans bombers were too small so they could not cause enough damage to put the enemies out of action. Plans to build big long-range heavy bombers were cancelled and they would have been capable of devastating airfields and aircraft factories, which would have helped Germany to defeat Britain.
On the other hand, the RAF had its strengths. It was led by Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding who had been planning Britain's air defence system since 1936 and had instead introduced important technical developments as the bullet-proof windscreens for fighter planes, and command and communication systems which allowed fighters to meet quickly and deal effectively with enemy attacks. He was also a supporter of radar which helped RAF planes to avoid being caught on the ground while the Luftwaffe approached. Moreover, the fighter planes -Spitfires and Hurricanes- were better than the Germans'. RAF fighters were able to meet attacks quickly since they were organised into regions.
The British outshoot the Luftwaffe but it still needed more planes so aircraft production was focused on producing only fighter planes.
In September 1940 the Luftwaffe changed tactics and it began to bomb London. This tactic was called 'The Blitz' and it lasted eight months. It is said that by then this Battle had come to an end since Hitler had abandoned his aim to destroy the RAF and had therefore abandoned his plans for invasion too.
The Battle of the Atlantic
The control of the Atlantic was vital for Britain because it was the link through which she received supplies from the USA and Canada. Without these supplies, she could not have carried on the war. Germany knew she had to cut off these supplies. Regarding this matter, the German submarines were quite effective until 1941. The reasons for this effectiveness were:
- her secure naval bases in Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands.
- the mines she laid around Britain's coasts.
- her long-range anti-shipping bombers.
- the crack of some of the codes used by British ships and the torpedoing of the convoys (U-boats limited the use of radios to avoid detection.).
- the attack from the surface at night so as not to be detected by the British anti-submarine device.
- the easy targets the US ships were.
Even so, the British innovated once again and were able to beat the U-boats. The British improvements were:
- the decoding of German codes, which allowed them to guide convoys away from the U-boats.
- two new weapons: torpex and the hedgehog depth charge.
- better training for convoy commanders and support groups of destroyers equipped with radar and listening equipment.
- long-range bombers used against submarines and fitted with special radar and depth charges to be dropped from the planes.
- the use of radio to link ships and aircraft and also to link these with on-shore commanders.
- the use of USA's cargo ships called Liberty, which were quickly built.
Finally, the Allies succeeded and in 1944 Doenitz called-off the U-boat campaign.
- her secure naval bases in Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands.
- the mines she laid around Britain's coasts.
- her long-range anti-shipping bombers.
- the crack of some of the codes used by British ships and the torpedoing of the convoys (U-boats limited the use of radios to avoid detection.).
- the attack from the surface at night so as not to be detected by the British anti-submarine device.
- the easy targets the US ships were.
Even so, the British innovated once again and were able to beat the U-boats. The British improvements were:
- the decoding of German codes, which allowed them to guide convoys away from the U-boats.
- two new weapons: torpex and the hedgehog depth charge.
- better training for convoy commanders and support groups of destroyers equipped with radar and listening equipment.
- long-range bombers used against submarines and fitted with special radar and depth charges to be dropped from the planes.
- the use of radio to link ships and aircraft and also to link these with on-shore commanders.
- the use of USA's cargo ships called Liberty, which were quickly built.
Finally, the Allies succeeded and in 1944 Doenitz called-off the U-boat campaign.
Hitler's war against the USSR
The Germans used the Blitzkrieg tactics against the Soviets and their effects were devastating. Germany gained control of the Ukraine and reached Crimea and Moscow. At this stage, Stalin considered surrendering. Yet, the Germans were stopped by the winter so the Red Army took advantage of this time to reorganise and survive.
This reorganisation was based on German's ideas which had been copied and improved. The Red Army gave the officers more freedom and independence and used harsh discipline known as 'not a step back’. They had new effective weapons (e.g. T-34 tanks) and adopted radio communications. Furthermore, they created specialist units to listen and disrupt German radio signals.
Apart from this reorganisation, the Soviets were spending all raw materials and resources on arms production and they had dismantled major industries complexes and then moved them to the East where they would be safe. Despite the Soviet leaders' will to succeed, we cannot ignore that the Russians lived in awful conditions during the war.
Why did the Soviets finally win?
Regarding weapons, the Soviet victory was a combination of Germany's weaknesses and the Allies' contribution.
Hitler used to interfere with the generals' ways of conducting the war and was still overconfident; soldiers did not have the right equipment for the winter and not only were the Germans efficient in supplying their troops but they used more raw materials and produced fewer weapons.
The Allies' contributed by supplying food, raw materials and equipment but mostly helped by bombing Germany. In this way, they were capable of partly interrupting Germany's arms production.
As regards the battlefields, there were two decisive turning points:
1-The Battle of Stalingrad.
In the suburbs of Stalingrad, this battle was carried our hand-to-hand. Although the Germans held on, part of the army was finally encircled after a counter-attack of the Soviets. At that time there were two different opinions: Paulus wanted to retreat and link up with reinforcements while Hitler wanted to fight on.
In the end, Paulus surrendered after the Soviet air power had cut off German supplies, the Soviet artillery had pounded German positions and the Katyusha Rocket Launcher had been used to rain down explosives over the Germans.
2-The Battle of Kursk.
The Germans launched a huge counter-attack against the Red Army but the latter already knew that this was going to happen so they had been preparing for it. Consequently, the Red Army was better equipped and had the possibility of replacing tanks and aircrafts lost in battles while Germans did not because of the allied bombing.
This battle was a turning point due to the fact that Germany started to retreat and the siege of Leningrad, which had started in 1941, was lifted. The Red Army could reach Poland and finally Berlin. Hitler committed suicide minutes before he was reached by the Soviet troops.
This reorganisation was based on German's ideas which had been copied and improved. The Red Army gave the officers more freedom and independence and used harsh discipline known as 'not a step back’. They had new effective weapons (e.g. T-34 tanks) and adopted radio communications. Furthermore, they created specialist units to listen and disrupt German radio signals.
Apart from this reorganisation, the Soviets were spending all raw materials and resources on arms production and they had dismantled major industries complexes and then moved them to the East where they would be safe. Despite the Soviet leaders' will to succeed, we cannot ignore that the Russians lived in awful conditions during the war.
Why did the Soviets finally win?
Regarding weapons, the Soviet victory was a combination of Germany's weaknesses and the Allies' contribution.
Hitler used to interfere with the generals' ways of conducting the war and was still overconfident; soldiers did not have the right equipment for the winter and not only were the Germans efficient in supplying their troops but they used more raw materials and produced fewer weapons.
The Allies' contributed by supplying food, raw materials and equipment but mostly helped by bombing Germany. In this way, they were capable of partly interrupting Germany's arms production.
As regards the battlefields, there were two decisive turning points:
1-The Battle of Stalingrad.
In the suburbs of Stalingrad, this battle was carried our hand-to-hand. Although the Germans held on, part of the army was finally encircled after a counter-attack of the Soviets. At that time there were two different opinions: Paulus wanted to retreat and link up with reinforcements while Hitler wanted to fight on.
In the end, Paulus surrendered after the Soviet air power had cut off German supplies, the Soviet artillery had pounded German positions and the Katyusha Rocket Launcher had been used to rain down explosives over the Germans.
2-The Battle of Kursk.
The Germans launched a huge counter-attack against the Red Army but the latter already knew that this was going to happen so they had been preparing for it. Consequently, the Red Army was better equipped and had the possibility of replacing tanks and aircrafts lost in battles while Germans did not because of the allied bombing.
This battle was a turning point due to the fact that Germany started to retreat and the siege of Leningrad, which had started in 1941, was lifted. The Red Army could reach Poland and finally Berlin. Hitler committed suicide minutes before he was reached by the Soviet troops.
The Allied bombing campaign against Germany
The aim of this campaign was to demoralise the Germans and destroy their vital industries, rail links and resources.
To overcome German defences, the Allies adopted tactics and improved technology: the raids started to be during the night when, there came a time when they were held round the clock, they used small tips of metal foil -called 'Window'- to produce a blizzard of confusing signals on enemy radar screens and make them useless. They developed a device called 'Oboe' to sent out radio beams which were followed by bombers to find their targets and they also developed Pathfinder bombers which used a radar to identify targets on the ground and then drop flares to allow following bombers to hit their targets. The latter had a devastating effect.
Nonetheless, the Allies did suffer important losses.
In 1943, the Allies attacked the Schweinfurt ball-bearing plant. When the fighter escorts left the bombers, these were attacked by the Luftwaffe. For this reason, the bombing campaign would have been abandoned but it was continued owing to a technical innovation: the escort fighters started to be fitted with extra fuel tanks. In this way, fighters could fly to all the way to Berlin and back. It was devastating for German people.
There is a lot of controversy regarding the bombing campaign since many people argue that it was not justified while others say that it was. In spite of this discussion, it is reasonable to believe that it did prevent Germany from expanding her production massively, that it drew off large numbers of German aircrafts from the Russian front, that it made Germany produce more antiaircraft guns that tanks and that it shortened the war.
To overcome German defences, the Allies adopted tactics and improved technology: the raids started to be during the night when, there came a time when they were held round the clock, they used small tips of metal foil -called 'Window'- to produce a blizzard of confusing signals on enemy radar screens and make them useless. They developed a device called 'Oboe' to sent out radio beams which were followed by bombers to find their targets and they also developed Pathfinder bombers which used a radar to identify targets on the ground and then drop flares to allow following bombers to hit their targets. The latter had a devastating effect.
Nonetheless, the Allies did suffer important losses.
In 1943, the Allies attacked the Schweinfurt ball-bearing plant. When the fighter escorts left the bombers, these were attacked by the Luftwaffe. For this reason, the bombing campaign would have been abandoned but it was continued owing to a technical innovation: the escort fighters started to be fitted with extra fuel tanks. In this way, fighters could fly to all the way to Berlin and back. It was devastating for German people.
There is a lot of controversy regarding the bombing campaign since many people argue that it was not justified while others say that it was. In spite of this discussion, it is reasonable to believe that it did prevent Germany from expanding her production massively, that it drew off large numbers of German aircrafts from the Russian front, that it made Germany produce more antiaircraft guns that tanks and that it shortened the war.
D-Day and the end of war in Europe
The Battle of El Alamein, fought in the deserts of North Africa is seen as a turning point in World War Two. This battle was primarily fought between two of the outstanding commanders of World War Two, Montgomery and Rommel.
By November 2nd 1942, Rommel knew that he was beaten. Hitler ordered the Afrika Korps to fight to the last but Rommel refused to carry out this order. On November 4th, Rommel started his retreat.
The Allied victory at El Alamein turned the tide in the North African Campaign. It led to the retreat of the Afrika Korps and the German surrender in North Africa in May 1943, ending Axis hopes of occupying Egypt, taking control of the Suez canal and gaining access to the Middle Eastern oil fields.
In 1943, USA and Britain invaded the South of Italy. Italy surrendered and the North was ocuppied by German forces.
Operation Overlord – D-Day
The aim of this operation was to liberate France, which had been occupied by Germany since 1940. The Germans had strong fortifications and well trained and experienced troops there so it would be a difficult task. Yet, this Operation started on 6 June 1944.
The Allies first attacked by air and applied decoy measures. They pounded German bridges, radar installations and rail, cutting off defenders in Normandy from reinforcements. A clever tactic they used was to attack away from where the invasion was going to start and send false radio messages in order to sidetrack the Germans.
To break out of Normandy before being trapped by the Germans, armour, reinforcements and supplies were needed by the Allies. Therefore, they sailed Giant floating harbours - ‘Mulberries’- across the Channel, they built big floating piers and they built their own oil pipeline called PLUTO - Pipe Line Under The Ocean -.
The Allies took advantage of their air superiority to defeat the Germans. Heavy bombers were used to destroy factories, fighter bombers to roam the countryside and attack German vehicles and trains and Resistance fighters to disrupt German communications and destroy supplies taken to German forces.
Resistance groups were attacking occupying German forces in other territories while the allied forces were advancing in Italy and the Soviet army was advancing from the East.
Finally, the break out of Normandy into the rest of France was achieved and Paris was liberated on 25 August 1944. Despite the fact that the Germans disrupted the Allies advance by a counter-attack in the Ardennes region (The Battle of the Bulge) and they utilised v-1 and v-2 missiles and jet aircraft, they could not completely stop the Allies’ advance.
In March 1945 the Allies were finally able to cross the Rhine into Germany and in May, the USA and British forces met up with soviet forces and the war was over.
By November 2nd 1942, Rommel knew that he was beaten. Hitler ordered the Afrika Korps to fight to the last but Rommel refused to carry out this order. On November 4th, Rommel started his retreat.
The Allied victory at El Alamein turned the tide in the North African Campaign. It led to the retreat of the Afrika Korps and the German surrender in North Africa in May 1943, ending Axis hopes of occupying Egypt, taking control of the Suez canal and gaining access to the Middle Eastern oil fields.
In 1943, USA and Britain invaded the South of Italy. Italy surrendered and the North was ocuppied by German forces.
Operation Overlord – D-Day
The aim of this operation was to liberate France, which had been occupied by Germany since 1940. The Germans had strong fortifications and well trained and experienced troops there so it would be a difficult task. Yet, this Operation started on 6 June 1944.
The Allies first attacked by air and applied decoy measures. They pounded German bridges, radar installations and rail, cutting off defenders in Normandy from reinforcements. A clever tactic they used was to attack away from where the invasion was going to start and send false radio messages in order to sidetrack the Germans.
To break out of Normandy before being trapped by the Germans, armour, reinforcements and supplies were needed by the Allies. Therefore, they sailed Giant floating harbours - ‘Mulberries’- across the Channel, they built big floating piers and they built their own oil pipeline called PLUTO - Pipe Line Under The Ocean -.
The Allies took advantage of their air superiority to defeat the Germans. Heavy bombers were used to destroy factories, fighter bombers to roam the countryside and attack German vehicles and trains and Resistance fighters to disrupt German communications and destroy supplies taken to German forces.
Resistance groups were attacking occupying German forces in other territories while the allied forces were advancing in Italy and the Soviet army was advancing from the East.
Finally, the break out of Normandy into the rest of France was achieved and Paris was liberated on 25 August 1944. Despite the fact that the Germans disrupted the Allies advance by a counter-attack in the Ardennes region (The Battle of the Bulge) and they utilised v-1 and v-2 missiles and jet aircraft, they could not completely stop the Allies’ advance.
In March 1945 the Allies were finally able to cross the Rhine into Germany and in May, the USA and British forces met up with soviet forces and the war was over.
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